Overview Fluoroquinolones are a class of broad-spectrum bactericidal antibiotics. Synthetic derivatives of nalidixic acid (a quinolone). Common drugs: Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Levofloxacin, Moxifloxacin, Norfloxacin. Participate in GPAT MOCK TEST 
Mechanism of Action Fluoroquinolones inhibit bacterial DNA topoisomerases, which are enzymes […]
Antibiotic Drug Resistance Definition: The ability of bacteria to withstand the effects of an antibiotic that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. Causes: Overuse or misuse of antibiotics Incomplete antibiotic courses Use of antibiotics in livestock and agriculture […]
Cephalosporins are classified into generations (1st to 5th) based on their antimicrobial spectrum and chronological development. Generation Examples Spectrum / Key Features 1st Generation Cefazolin, Cephalexin Good Gram-positive coverage (e.g., Staph, Strep); limited Gram-negative 2nd Generation Cefuroxime, Cefaclor, Cefoxitin […]
Classification of Penicillins Class Examples Spectrum / Features Natural Penicillins Penicillin G (IV), Penicillin V (oral) Narrow spectrum – mainly Gram-positive cocci, anaerobes, spirochetes (e.g., Treponema) Penicillinase-Resistant Penicillins Methicillin, Nafcillin, Oxacillin, Cloxacillin Resistant to staphylococcal beta-lactamase; used for MSSA Aminopenicillins […]
Beta-lactamase Inhibitors Pharmacology Definition: Beta-lactamase inhibitors are drugs that inhibit the action of beta-lactamase enzymes produced by bacteria. Mechanism of Action: They bind irreversibly to beta-lactamase enzymes, preventing these enzymes from breaking down beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g., penicillins). Classification of Beta-lactamase […]
Overview of Beta-Lactam Antibiotics Definition: A class of antibiotics containing a beta-lactam ring in their molecular structure, effective against a wide range of bacteria. Examples: Penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, monobactams. Target: Primarily Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria. Key Feature: Bactericidal (kill […]
Overview of the Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) Location: Part of the nephron in the kidney, located between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct. Function: Fine-tunes the composition of urine by selective reabsorption and secretion of ions, water, and […]
Overview Definition: Glycogen Storage Diseases are a group of inherited metabolic disorders caused by deficiencies in enzymes involved in glycogen synthesis, degradation, or regulation. Inheritance: Mostly autosomal recessive, except for GSD IX (X-linked in some cases). General Symptoms: Hypoglycemia, hepatomegaly, […]
Cotrimoxazole Overview Cotrimoxazole is a combination antibiotic medication that contains two active ingredients: sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim. It’s commonly used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, such as urinary tract infections, respiratory infections (like bronchitis or pneumonia), and certain types […]
Notes on Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) – Reabsorption & Secretion Overview of the PCT Location: First segment of the nephron tubule, following Bowman’s capsule. Structure: Composed of simple cuboidal epithelium with extensive microvilli (brush border) to maximize surface area for […]